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Large atlas of human anatomy. Large atlas of anatomy. Rohen J., Yokochi C., Lutyen-Drekoll E

represents drawings and diagrams, which depict all the main organs and systems of a person with the necessary explanations. The language of presentation is simple and understandable, which allows the use of materials by both a doctor - a specialist and medical workers of any qualification. And, besides, to all those who want to know in more detail how our body and its individual organs are arranged.

The text of the atlas is fully consistent with current scientific data. All information is divided into chapters, with each chapter describing one of the body systems in a certain sequence. Anatomical atlas of a human in pictures can serve as a supplement to anatomy textbooks, or be used as an independent teaching aid, convenient to use and compact. Such an online publication will be useful and interesting for any person interested in anatomy.

The human anatomy is natural science, the subject of which is the structure of the human body. There are several directions:

systematic anatomy, the subject of which is the individual systems of the body (for example, musculoskeletal) and their relationship;
topographic, studying the location of individual organs and tissues relative to each other. It is of great practical importance;
plastic, dealing with the study of the external shape of the body: the proportions and patterns of its structure.

Modern methods of studying the human body are fluoroscopy and radiography. In order to preserve and systematize anatomical studies, anatomical atlases are needed. To date, many high-quality materials are known, for example, the old and time-tested works of Rauber - Kopsh and Shpaltegolts, or the new materials of Wolf - Heidegger and V.P. Vorobyov. But the need for new high-quality anatomical atlases and illustrations remains, especially in connection with the emergence of new data.

The online atlas, built according to the systematic direction of anatomy, contains a large number of illustrations for all systems of human onanism. The content of the atlas is a mass of factual material from reliable medical sources.

Human skeleton
Bone joints
Muscles of the human body
Internal organs (innards)
Organs of the immune system
The cardiovascular system

Muscular system

Muscles mainly carry out the motor function of the body, its parts and individual organs.

Muscles account for from 28 to 45% of body weight, in newborns and children - up to 20–22%; in athletes, muscles can make up more than 50% of body weight.

Muscle classification

There are smooth and striated muscles.

Smooth muscles are located in the wall of blood vessels, skin and various hollow organs - the stomach, intestines, uterus, etc. The striated muscles include the heart muscle (myocardium) and skeletal muscles.

Scheme 1. Muscle classification based on shape and structure

In total, a person has about 600 skeletal muscles. The whole variety of muscles is classified taking into account the shape and structure (Scheme 1).

Depending on the body areas distinguish the muscles of the trunk, head, limbs; posterior muscle group of the back, occiput; anterior group of muscles of the neck, chest, abdomen.

By shape muscles are long and short, as well as wide. The long muscles of the limbs during contraction are shortened by a greater amount compared to the short ones and provide a greater range of motion in the joints. Broad muscles are involved in the formation of the walls of the cavities.

Muscles are also divided into simple long muscles, which have one head, abdomen and tail, and complex muscles, having a different number of parts (for example, two-headed, three-headed, digastric, multitendinous, etc.).

According to the location of the muscle bundles and their relation to the tendons in the muscle, a parallel one is isolated; pinnate and triangular shapes.

Muscles can pass through one or more joints, engaging them in movement during contraction. Depending on this, single-joint, two-joint, multi-joint muscles are distinguished (Fig. 9 A, B, B1).

ATTENTION!

The muscles of the soft palate, pharynx, neck, perineum, as well as supra- and hyoid, mimic muscles are not related to the joints.

The muscles of the head are divided into mimic and chewing.

Mimic muscles are located under the skin. When contracted, they displace the skin and change the expression of the face, forming folds perpendicular to the course of the muscle fibers. Mimic muscles are grouped mainly around natural openings, expanding and narrowing them (Scheme 2).

Rice. 9. Patterns of location and attachment of muscles on bones BUT. general patterns: 1 - articulating bones; 2 - joints; 3 - a single-joint muscle that passes through one joint; 4 - biarticular muscles, which are thrown over two joints; ah- synergistic muscles (in this case, both flexors); a-b- antagonist muscles (in this case a- flexor b- extensor); p. f. (punctum fixum)- the point of origin of the muscle - a symbol of the place of attachment of the muscle to the less mobile or most proximal bone; p.m. (punctum mobile)- point of attachment of the muscle - a symbol of the place of attachment of the muscle to the more mobile or most distally located bone. B. The result of the action of antagonist muscles: flexor contractions (B)- biceps brachii and extensor (B1)- triceps brachii

Scheme 2. Classification of facial muscles

Scheme 3. Systematization of muscles according to their functional characteristics and according to their function

Rice. ten. Muscular options: a- overcoming muscle work; b- holding muscle work; in- inferior muscle work

Chewing muscles are attached to the lower jaw and carry out its movement in the temporomandibular joint.

All muscles are systematized according to their functional characteristics, according to their function (Scheme 3).

The work that a muscle produces during contraction can be:

Overcoming, for example, when the arm is abducted to a horizontal level, the deltoid muscle, contracting, overcomes the weight of the arm;

Holding, for example, producing the abduction of the arm, the deltoid muscle can hold the arm fixedly at shoulder level;

Inferior, for example, the hand smoothly lowers, while the holding work of the deltoid muscle is replaced by the inferior one (Fig. 10 a, b, c).

Overcoming and yielding muscle work is denoted as myodynamic activity. The holding work of the muscles is called myostatic or positional activity.

Muscle structure

The composition of the muscle includes: muscle and connective tissue, tendons, nerves, blood and lymphatic vessels. In a muscle, muscle and tendon parts are distinguished.

Muscle fiber with its sheath, nerve endings, blood and lymphatic capillaries is called muscle unit or myon.

Muscle fibers differ in thickness, therefore, in volume and mass. It has been established that white muscle fibers have the largest diameter, and red muscle fibers have the smallest. Red and white fibers clearly differ in structural organization: the former are characterized by a small diameter, a significant number of mitochondria, and a relatively weak development of the T-system and sarcoplasmic reticulum. They contain a significant amount of myoglobin and are surrounded by numerous blood capillaries. It is known that two subtypes are distinguished among red fibers (red slow and red fast, differing in the speed of contraction and fatigue).

In humans, most muscles contain both white and red muscle fibers, but white fibers predominate in some muscles (for example, in the calf), and red fibers predominate in others (for example, in the soleus).

Muscle fibers are combined into bundles of I, II and III orders. The bundles of the first order are surrounded by thin layers of connective tissue - endomysium. The connective tissue surrounding the bundles of the II order and located between the bundles of the III order constitutes the internal perimysium.

The entire muscle has an outer connective tissue sheath - the outer perimysium.

Intramuscular connective tissue passes into the tendon. The tendon fibers are a continuation of the endomysium and perimysium, and the endomysium, which covers the muscle fibers, is firmly connected to the sarcolemma. Therefore, the traction developed by the contracting muscle fiber is transmitted first to the endomysium and perimysium, and then to the tendon fibers.

The tendon of the muscle is attached to the bone due to the interlacing of the tendon fibers with the collagen fibers of the periosteum, their joint ingrowth into the bone and continuing into the substance of the bone plates.

The blood supply is carried out by the muscular branches of the main arteries and their branches. As a rule, several feeding arteries penetrate the muscle, branching along the layers of the perimysium and directed mainly along the course of the muscle bundles. Lymphatic vessels pass along the branching of the blood vessels.

Together with the arteries, one or more nerves enter the muscle, which carry out motor and sensory innervation. A motor neuron with a group of muscle fibers innervated by it is called a neuromotor unit (Table 1).

Table 1

Sources of innervation and blood supply to muscles

To auxiliary devices muscles include fascia, fibrous and synovial tendon sheaths, synovial bags, etc. All muscles, except for facial muscles, are surrounded by fascia, which form muscle sheaths for them. Own fascia form fascial, or bone-fibrous, beds for functionally and topographically homogeneous muscle groups. Fascia perform a supporting function, being the places of origin and attachment of many muscles. They provide lateral resistance to contracting muscles, facilitating their motor function.

Muscle tendon sheaths can be fibrous and synovial. Fibrous sheaths help to hold the tendons around the bones and joints, as well as to move the tendons in strictly defined directions. Synovial sheaths of tendons, as well as fibrous ones, surround the tendons in places of their greatest displacement and adherence to the bones and joint capsule.

Physiological role striated muscles diverse: a) they are involved in the movement of parts (segments) of the skeleton; b) fixation of the joints; c) maintaining balance.

Thanks to work smooth muscles the contractile activity of the gastrointestinal tract is carried out, which creates optimal conditions for the digestion process, maintains blood pressure (BP) at a certain level.

Striated muscles are prone in some cases to hyperactivity, spasm, shortening and hypertension, in others to inhibition, relaxation and hypotension. The former are called "postural" and the latter "phasic" muscles. In healthy people, muscles are in dynamic balance.

Most of the striated muscles are associated with the bones of the skeleton or the skin. During contraction, muscles shorten; the return to the original length after contraction is associated with the activity of antagonist muscles. In some muscles, such as chewing and facial muscles, elastic ligaments play the role of antagonists. As a rule, even the simplest motor acts involve several muscles that are synergists and antagonists. During the contraction of synergists, reflex inhibition of antagonists occurs. Synergism and antagonism of muscles are very conditional; for example, while holding a load on an outstretched arm, the biceps of the shoulder muscle is tense, and the triceps is relaxed; when resting with a free hand on the surface of the table, the triceps muscle is tense and the biceps muscle is relaxed; with a fully extended (full extension) and fixed upper limb, both muscles are tensed.

The basis of the contractile activity of a muscle is a single muscle contraction that occurs in response to a nerve impulse. If we represent graphically the scheme of muscle contraction, then a single contraction looks like a wave with ascending and descending phases. The first phase is called reduction, second - relaxation. Relaxation is longer in time than contraction. The total time of a single muscle contraction is a fraction of a second and depends on the functional state of the muscle. The duration of muscle contraction decreases with moderate work and increases with fatigue.

Isotonic such a muscle contraction is called, in which the muscle is freely shortened; at isometric During muscle contraction, the length of the muscle remains constant (both of its ends are fixed) and only the tension changes.

ATTENTION!

In the body, under normal conditions, pure isotonic and isometric muscle contraction is not observed.

Striated muscles have two important mechanical properties that determine the nature of muscle contraction.

The first is known as the relationship length - strength (length - tension), its essence lies in the fact that for each muscle the length at which it develops maximum force (tension) can be found.

The second property of muscles is the interdependence of the strength and speed of muscle contraction: the heavier the load, the slower its rise and the greater the applied force, the lower the speed of muscle shortening. With a very large load, muscle contraction becomes isometric; in this case, the contraction rate is zero. Without load, the speed of muscle contraction is the highest.

The range of speeds of muscle contraction is quite large - from fractions of a second (skeletal muscles) to minutes (smooth muscles). It is determined by many factors.

The striated muscle fibers have short sarcomeres, many myofibrils, an abundant sarcotubular system, and one or two nerve endings.

Smooth muscles are characterized by a small number and disordered arrangement of myofibrils, an underdeveloped sarcotubular system, and low activity of myosin ATPase.

Muscle contraction of skeletal muscles can be caused by a single nerve impulse. Rhythmic stimulation is required for smooth muscle contraction to occur.

The rate of relaxation of skeletal and smooth muscles varies significantly, as it depends on the number of elastic elements in the muscle, the length of the fibers, the rate of absorption of calcium ions, etc.

The increase in muscle diameter as a result of physical training is called working hypertrophy muscles (from the Greek "trophos" - nutrition). There are two extreme types of working hypertrophy of muscle fibers: sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar.

Sarcoplasmic working hypertrophy is a thickening of muscle fibers due to a predominant increase in the volume of the sarcoplasm, that is, its non-contractile part. Hypertrophy of this type occurs due to an increase in the content of non-contractile (in particular mitochondrial) proteins and metabolic reserves of muscle fibers. A significant increase in the number of capillaries as a result of training can also cause some muscle thickening.

Working hypertrophy of this type has little effect on the growth of muscle strength, but it significantly increases the ability to work for a long time, i.e., increases their endurance.

Myofibrillar working hypertrophy is associated with an increase in the number and volume of myofibrils, that is, the actual contractile apparatus of muscle fibers. At the same time, the packing density of myofibrils in the muscle fiber increases. Such working hypertrophy of muscle fibers leads to a significant increase in muscle strength. The absolute strength of the muscle also increases significantly, and with working hypertrophy of the first type, it either does not change at all, or even decreases somewhat. Apparently, fast muscle fibers are most predisposed to myofibrillar hypertrophy.

In real situations, hypertrophy of muscle fibers is a combination of the two named types with the predominance of one of them. The predominant development of one or another type of working hypertrophy is determined by the nature of muscle training. Long-term dynamic exercises that develop endurance, with a relatively small power load on the muscles, mainly cause working hypertrophy of the first type. Exercises with high muscle tension, on the contrary, contribute to the development of working hypertrophy, mainly of the second type.

Strength training is associated with a relatively small number of repetitive maximum or near maximum muscle contractions, which involve both fast and slow muscle fibers. However, a small number of repetitions is sufficient for the development of working hypertrophy of fast fibers, which indicates their greater predisposition to the development of working hypertrophy (compared to slow fibers). A high percentage of fast fibers in the muscles is an important prerequisite for a significant increase in muscle strength with directed strength training. Therefore, people with a high percentage of fast fibers in their muscles have a higher potential for developing strength and power.

Endurance training is associated with a large number of repeated muscle contractions of relatively small force, which are mainly provided by the activity of slow muscle fibers. Therefore, their more pronounced working hypertrophy with this type of training is understandable compared to the hypertrophy of fast muscle fibers.

Projection of the main muscles of the trunk and limbs

Knowing the projection of muscles on the surface of the human body makes it possible to analyze the state of certain muscle groups, allows a specialist (doctor, massage therapist) to reasonably approach the impact on a particular muscle and select certain massage techniques to strengthen muscles and improve their elasticity.

It is advisable to consider the projection of the muscles according to the topographic feature. Knowing the location of the muscle, the places of its fixation, the relation to the joint, one can easily navigate the function of both the entire muscle and its individual parts.

Projection of muscles on the trunk and upper limbs

1. On the front surface of the body (in the chest area), the pectoral (large and small) and subclavian muscles are determined (Fig. 11 a).

Borders pectoralis major muscle are better contoured when moving the arm forward or while bringing it to the body (the hand of the masseur provides a dosed resistance). In this case, even bundles of muscle coming from the collarbone, sternum with ribs and fascia of the abdomen are indicated.

pectoralis minor muscle projected from the anterior sections of the II-V ribs towards the coracoid process of the scapula. The contours of this muscle can be seen when lowering (with a metered resistance of the massage therapist's hand) the belt of the upper limb.

subclavian muscle is located directly under the clavicle and is projected from the cartilage of the 1st rib to the middle of the clavicle.

Rice. eleven. Trunk muscles: BUT- in front; B- on the side; AT- behind; a - clavicle; b- sternum; in- iliac crest; g - pubic fusion; d - spinous processes of the vertebrae; e- lumbar aponeurosis. Chest muscles: 1 - pectoralis major muscle 2 - serratus anterior muscle. Abdominal muscles: 5 - inguinal (pupartova) ligament. Back muscles: 6 - trapezius muscle: 7 - latissimus dorsi muscle: 8 - rhomboid muscle. Muscles of the shoulder girdle - I. Muscles of the pelvic girdle - II. Muscles of the thigh - III

2. On the lateral surface of the thoracic trunk is visible serratus anterior as individual teeth. It is clearly visible when the arm is moved forward, as well as in its abduction above the horizontal level and the simultaneous tilt of the body in the opposite direction. In the same position, one can also intercostal muscles, located between the ribs, in the intercostal spaces (Fig. 11 b).

3. The following muscles are determined on the back surface of the body.

trapezius muscle(its upper, middle and lower parts) is clearly visible if you take your hands to the sides and slightly raise your shoulder blades. The lower part of the muscle is contoured with a slight extension of the torso with arms down. (Fig. 11 c)

Latissimus dorsi muscle clearly visible when the pronated hand moves backward. When the arm is abducted, the upper edge of this muscle is outlined, covering the lower angle of the scapula. To determine the upper edge of the latissimus dorsi muscle, you should bring your hand to the body with overcoming the resistance of the massage therapist's hands.

Rhomboid muscles (large and small) projected from the spinous processes of the two lower cervical and four upper thoracic vertebrae towards the medial edge of the scapula. These muscles are contoured quite distinctly when the shoulder blades are raised and the arms are lowered. If the abducted arm is raised, then the lower angle of the scapula will move to the lateral side, its vertebral edge will change direction (oblique instead of vertical), and then the trapezius muscle will be more clearly visible under the lower edge of the trapezius muscle.

Muscle that lifts the scapula projected in the direction from the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebrae to the medial angle of the scapula. It can be seen when raising the arms, when the lower angle of the scapula deviates laterally, and the medial one, to which the muscle that lifts the scapula is attached, approaches the spine and drops somewhat.

Muscle-rectifier of the spine quite well contoured and even visible directly under the skin. To a greater extent, it is noticeable in the middle and lower sections of the posterior surface of the body on both sides of the posterior midline of the body (to the right and left of the spinous processes of the vertebrae).

4. In the area of the scapula are located teres major muscle which is well contoured if the back muscles are tense and the pronated arm is brought to the body, and small round and infraspinatus- they are more convenient to consider when the supinated hand is brought to the body. The infraspinatus muscle can be seen by focusing on the axis of the scapula. Iadous muscle usually poorly visible, as it is covered by the trapezius muscle. It can be palpated in the area above the spine of the scapula.

5. In the region of the shoulder joint, surrounding it from the lateral side, in front and behind, is located deltoid. Its parts (front, middle and back) are well contoured when the arm is somewhat laid aside. The back of the muscle is better seen when moving the upper limb back, and the front - when moving forward.

6. When the hand is taken away above the horizontal and lowered with the resistance of the massage therapist's hands, the armpit(Fig. 12 a). It can be seen that its anterior wall is formed by the pectoralis major and pectoralis minor muscles, the posterior by the latissimus dorsi, the teres major and subscapularis muscles, and the medial by the serratus anterior. On the lateral side of the armpit with a supinated arm, coracobrachial muscle in the form of a longitudinal elevation, going from the coracoid process of the scapula to the humerus, and the short head of the biceps brachii, which also focuses on the coracoid process of the scapula.

Rice. 12. Muscles of the hand. BUT- in front; B- behind; AT- laterally; G- medially a - clavicle; b- olecranon of the ulna; e- spatula. Muscles of the shoulder girdle: 1 - deltoid muscle; 2 - pectoralis major muscle 3 - infraspinatus muscle; 4 - small round; 5 - big round; 6 - latissimus dorsi muscle. Muscles of the forearm: 7 - biceps muscle of the shoulder; 8 - triceps muscle of the shoulder; 9 - shoulder muscle. Muscles of the forearm (superficial and some deep): 10 - brachioradialis muscle; 11 - round pronator; 12 - ulnar flexor of the wrist; 13 - long palmar muscle; 14 - radial flexor of the wrist; 17 - long radial extensor of the wrist; 19 - elbow muscle; 20 - common extensor of the fingers; 21 - own extensor of the little finger; 22 - ulnar extensor of the wrist; 24 - long abductor muscle of the thumb; 27 - palmar aponeurosis; 28 - muscles of the elevation of the little finger; 29 - tendons of the common extensor of the fingers; 30 - tendons of a number of muscles that extensor and abduct the thumb

7. Biceps brachii clearly looms if the arm is bent at the elbow joint with the supinated forearm. By pronating and supinating it, you can see how the biceps muscle either tenses (during supination) or relaxes (during pronation). In this position, the hands on the lateral side of the shoulder can be seen shoulder muscle, located under the biceps muscle of the shoulder (Fig. 12 b).

8. On the back surface of the shoulder, with the forearm extended at the elbow joint, all three heads are determined triceps brachii; long, lateral and medial. In the same position, you can see the contours elbow muscle, running from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus to the ulna (Fig. 12c).

9. If you bend the forearm at an angle of 90 ° (in relation to the shoulder), then with isometric tension of the muscles of the anterior surface of the shoulder and forearm, the contours of brachioradialis muscle and round pronator, limiting the cubital fossa from below. The brachioradialis muscle limits it from the lateral side, and the round pronator - from the medial side. If you pronate the forearm with the resistance of the masseur's hands, then the contour of the round pronator appears more clearly. The brachioradialis muscle is clearly visible if the forearm is bent at the elbow joint and the dosed resistance of the hands of the massage therapist prevents its further flexion.

10. Flexor muscles of the hand and fingers projected from the medial epicondyle towards the bones of the hand and fingers. In the distal forearm, with the hand and fingers bent, the tendons of these muscles can be seen; the tendon of the radial flexor of the wrist is located laterally, closer to the radius, and the tendon of the ulnar flexor of the wrist is located medially, closer to the medial edge of the ulna.

Projection of the muscles of the lower limb

1. Muscles of the anterior surface of the thigh.

Quadriceps femoris. With its isometric tension or lifting up, the contours of the muscle are clearly indicated. From the superior anterior iliac spine, the rectus femoris muscle goes down, which can be clearly seen when the straight leg is bent at the hip joint.

Sartorius is determined under the skin all the way from the superior anterior iliac spine to the tibial tuberosity: the muscle is released in a position when the thigh is flexed at the hip joint, somewhat abducted and supinated.

comb muscle projected in the upper thigh from the upper branch of the pubic bone (slightly lateral to the symphysis) towards the upper third of the thigh. Next to it, on the lateral side, under the inguinal ligament, it is easily palpable iliopsoas muscle, especially with rocking movements of the leg (back and forth).

2. The adductors of the thigh are located on the medial surface of the thigh. Of these, the most superficial thin muscle, however, its contours are not defined clearly enough.

3. On the lateral surface of the hip joint area there are two large muscles that are well projected when the leg is bent at the hip joint at a right angle to the body: gluteus medius and tensor fascia lata. In the position of the patient lying on his side or standing above the greater trochanter, two sharply contoured elevations can be seen: the anterior elevation is the muscle that strains the wide fascia of the thigh, the posterior is the gluteus medius muscle.

Rice. 13. Muscles of the lower limb (anterior surface)

I - iliopsoas muscle; 2 - muscle stretching the wide fascia; 3 - comb muscle; 4 - long adductor muscle; 5 - tailor muscle; 6 - tender thigh muscle; 7 - rectus femoris; 8 - quadriceps femoris (internal and external); 9 - patellar cup; 10 - projection of the inner muscle of the thigh; 11 - projection of the sartorius muscle; 12 - projection of the adductor muscles of the thigh; 13 - projection of the inguinal ligament.

Rice. fourteen. Muscles of the posterior surface

I - lumbar triangle; 2 - gluteus medius muscle; 3 - gluteus maximus; 4 - iliac-tibial tract; 5 - a large adductor muscle; 6 - biceps femoris 7 - tender muscle; 8 - semimembranosus muscle; 9 - semitendinosus muscle; 10 - calf muscle; 11 - popliteal fossa; 12 - gluteal groove; 13 - big skewer; 14 - posterior superior iliac spine

4. On the back surface (Fig. 13, 14) of the hip joint protrudes gluteus maximus muscle, at the lower edge of which a gluteal fold is formed. Below the gluteus maximus muscle are projected biceps femoris, semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles. If the leg is bent at the knee joint and unbent with the resistance of the massage therapist's hands, then the biceps femoris muscle is released from the lateral side of the thigh, going to the head of the fibula, and from the medial side, the semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles.

5. On the back of the lower leg, all three heads triceps calf muscle are clearly distinguished in the position of the patient standing on toes, and in the upper part of the posterior surface of the lower leg, the medial and lateral heads of the gastrocnemius muscle are contoured, limiting the popliteal fossa from below, and below them - soleus muscle. The tendon of these muscles (calcaneal) can be seen and felt all the way to the place of its attachment to the calcaneus.

6. Tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, and extensor hallucis longus visible well.

The anterior tibial muscle lies near the anterior edge of the tibia, is visible and palpable throughout.

Lateral to it is the long extensor of the fingers.

The long extensor of the thumb is determined between these muscles only in the lower leg.

The tendons of all three muscles are especially visible on the dorsum of the foot when the foot and toes are extended. In addition, the accessory long extensor tendon of the fingers (called the third peroneal muscle) can be identified here, which runs from it to the lateral edge of the dorsal surface of the foot (to the base of the fifth metatarsal bone).

7. On the lateral surface of the leg are located long and short peroneal muscles, which are clearly visible when lifting on toes and pronation of the foot. Superficially is the long peroneal muscle, and under it is the short peroneal muscle. by Don Hamilton

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Muscular system Skeletal muscles (Fig. 9-1 and 9-2), of which there are more than 400, constitute the active part of the human movement apparatus. In general, they make up about 1/3 of the entire body weight. The mass of muscles located on the limbs is equal to 80% of the total mass of the muscular system. Muscle Functions

Name: Human anatomy.

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Name: Great Atlas of Anatomy - A photographic description of the human body.

Photographic description of the human body. A large number of new illustrations have been introduced into this edition: about 60 new photographs and 20 new drawings have been added based on newly created samples. In order to avoid undesirable changes in the volume of the book, we have removed obsolete figures from previous editions and revised them. Contains 1111 illustrations, 947 of which are color ratio of the parts of the book.

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Name: Atlas of Human Anatomy - Volume 3.

The third volume is devoted to the doctrine of the vessels - angiology. The structure of the heart, the vessels of the pulmonary and systemic circulation, the lymphatic system and the spleen are presented in detail. All anatomical terms are given in accordance with the International Anatomical Nomenclature, 4th edition (M.: Medicine, 1980). Changes have been made according to the 5th edition of the nomenclature (Mexican revision, 1983).

Download and read Atlas of Human Anatomy - Volume 3 - Sinelnikov R.D., Sinelnikov Ya.R.

Name: Atlas of Human Anatomy - Volume 2.

The second volume presents the doctrine of the viscera: the digestive and respiratory systems, the genitourinary apparatus, as well as the endocrine glands. Information about the development and age characteristics of organs and systems is presented. The text is illustrated with original drawings, photographs from preparations and radiographs. All terms are aligned with the International Anatomical Nomenclature (4th and 5th editions).

Name: Atlas of Human Anatomy - Volume 1.

The first volume consists of three sections: 1) the doctrine of the bones; 2) the doctrine of bone joints; 3) the doctrine of muscles. The relationship between bone formations and the muscles attached to them is reflected, which makes it possible to reveal the skeletonotopy of especially complex muscle complexes. The illustrative material is represented by drawings of preparations specially prepared for the atlas, and radiographs. All anatomical terms are given in accordance with the International Anatomical Nomenclature, 4th edition (Medicine, 1980). Some changes have been made to the 5th edition of the nomenclature (Mexican revision, 1983).

Name: Anatomical Atlas of the Human Body - Volume 3.

Volume 3

Download and read Anatomical Atlas of the Human Body - Volume 3 - Kishsh F. Sentagotai Ya.

Name: Anatomical Atlas of the Human Body - Volume 2.

Volume 2

The study of human anatomy is impossible without the help of an anatomical atlas. The task of the atlas is not only to help the medical student understand the shape, position and structure of organs when the student studies anatomy in a dissection room or museum. Atlas helps to restore natural anatomical preparations in memory. Therefore, the atlas serves not only the student, but also the doctor. Anatomical atlas prof. F. Kishsha and prof. J. Sentagotai reflects the great scientific and pedagogical experience of these Hungarian scientists. The Atlas compares favorably with the fact that, while remaining at the high level of modern science, it offers the medical student studying anatomy only the most important. The atlas is not overloaded with details. It presents generalized, often even semi-schematic, but completely natural anatomical pictures. In each figure, the most important is also highlighted with markup and notation, and the less important is omitted.

Anatomy is a field of biology (internal morphology). Anatomy studies the human body by systems (systematic anatomy). Accordingly, it consists of a number of sections: the doctrine of the skeletal system - osteology; the doctrine of bone joints, joints and ligaments - syndesmology and arthrology; the doctrine of the muscular system - myology; the doctrine of the vascular system - angiology; the doctrine of the nervous system - neurology; the doctrine of the sense organs - esthesiology. The anatomy of internal organs is allocated in a special section - splanchnology. Systematic anatomy is supplemented by topographic, or regional, describing primarily the spatial relationships of organs, which is of particular interest to. The study of the structure of the body with the naked eye is the subject of macroscopic anatomy. The use of a microscope allows you to study the fine structure of organs - microscopic anatomy.

The term "normal anatomy" emphasizes its difference from pathological anatomy, which studies changes in organs and systems in diseases. An important phase in the study of body structure is analysis, accompanied by careful description (descriptive anatomy). The study of the structure of the body in dynamics in connection with functions determines the content of functional anatomy, a special section of which is experimental anatomy. Features of the structure of the body and organs in the process of individual development of the organism are studied by age-related anatomy. Plastic anatomy, which studies the external forms and proportions of the human body, is of great practical importance for the fine arts. Comparative anatomy systematizes data on the anatomy of representatives of the animal world in order to identify the anatomical features of a person that have developed in the process of evolution.

Modern anatomy has accumulated a large amount of material on the intravital structure of organs, obtained with the help of and (X-ray anatomy).

This section of the site is a textbook on human anatomy in pictures. It sets out questions on the history of anatomy, general questions, the structure of the musculoskeletal system, digestive, respiratory, genitourinary systems and endocrine glands. Further, the structure of the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system, the central nervous system with conducting pathways, the peripheral nervous system, the head nerves, the autonomic nervous system, and the sense organs are described. The material is presented according to the systemic principle, in each section functional and topographic anatomical features, organogenesis, age features, developmental anomalies are noted, comparative anatomical data are given. The anatomical atlas is illustrated with color pictures and diagrams.

This textbook "Human Anatomy" is designed for students of medical institutes and corresponds to the curriculum. The material of the textbook is presented in such a way that particular questions are first dealt with, then embryological and phylogenetic data. Many sections contain information about the age, topographic and functional features of organs. The summary data on blood supply and innervation given in other textbooks is omitted in this manual due to the fact that during the study of internal organs, students are still unfamiliar with the structure of the circulatory and lymphatic systems, as well as the nervous system. Such material is useful for physicians and should be presented in a manual or, in extreme cases, in a topographic anatomy textbook. In this manual, sections relating to the structure of bones, ligamentous apparatus and muscles are presented more briefly, and the structure of internal organs is presented in more detail. This is due to the fact that the doctor in practice often encounters diseases of the internal organs.

The manual has many illustrations that will help the assimilation of the material. Naturally, the goal of training is not to memorize many anatomical terms that, without proper reinforcement, will be completely forgotten over time, but to understand the general plan of the human structure. Anatomy is a part of biology, therefore the structure of all organs, systems, the living organism as a whole are considered in terms of their development and functional relationships. The study of human anatomy from the correct methodological positions from the first days of acquaintance with medicine should contribute to the formation of materialistic thinking and the doctor’s worldview, since anatomy, together with biology, histology, physiology, pathology and biochemistry, forms the foundation of theoretical training. Like any science, anatomy includes questions of applied importance that are important for clinical medicine, biological questions that are necessary to expand the medical horizons and are necessary in order to answer the natural question: “How is a person arranged?” There is an opinion that human anatomy is allegedly difficult. Our knowledge of the most perfect and wonderful creation of nature, which is man, is still incomplete today, but, as the history of anatomy shows, they were even more primitive 2000-3000 years ago. And if much has been achieved on the path of understanding the structure of man, it is only thanks to the mind of man in his curiosity. Once upon a time, scientists were happy if they were able to look into the belly of a creature similar to themselves, but now, having called on the help of modern achievements in applied and fundamental sciences, they reveal molecular combinations and cognize their own nature. On these paths there are many difficulties and many joys. Knowledge of the structure of man is an internal need of a student who has dedicated his life to the most noble cause - the deliverance of mankind from suffering, who has chosen the profession of a doctor, which, since ancient times, requires a person to give all the fullness of moral and intellectual forces.

Internal organs
As mentioned above, the internal organs provide the vegetative (vegetative) functions of the body, i.e. nutrition, respiration, excretion of metabolic products and reproduction. Let us get acquainted in more detail with their structure and activity, as well as with some conditions necessary for the normal operation of these organs. Blood, lymph, cardiovascular system

Man has undergone a complex biological evolution and has united a natural-natural being from the biological side, and a social-social being from the historical side. Its structure and functions are fully known by biology and social laws. Human anatomy belongs to the biological sciences. Human anatomy is a science that studies the origin, development, external and internal structure, functional features of a living person. Human anatomy aims to describe the shape, macroscopic structure, topography of organs, taking into account the sexual, individual, constitutional characteristics of the organism, as well as phylogenetic (from phylon - genus, genesis - development) and ontogenetic (from ontos - individual) moments of development. The study of the human structure is carried out from the standpoint of the whole organism. Anatomy also attracts the data of anthropology - the science of man. Anthropology examines a person not only age, gender and individual characteristics, but also racial, ethnic, professional, studies social influences, finds out the factors that determine the historical development of a person. Thus, biology considers a person from evolutionary positions, which plays a role in shaping the materialistic worldview of the Soviet doctor.

Human anatomy is of great practical importance for medicine. Anatomy, together with histology, physiology, biochemistry and other disciplines, forms the basis of theoretical knowledge in the training of a doctor. The outstanding physiologist I. P. Pavlov noted that only by knowing the structure and functions of organs can we correctly understand the causes of diseases and the possibilities of their elimination. Without knowledge of the structure of a person, it is impossible to understand the changes caused by the disease, to establish the localization of the pathological process, to carry out surgical interventions, and, consequently, to correctly diagnose diseases and treat patients. On this occasion, 170 years ago, one of the outstanding Russian doctors E. Mukhin (1766-1850) spoke very figuratively: “A doctor who is not an anatomist is not only useless, but also harmful.” When, during the period of scholasticism and the influence of religion (13th century), doctors were forbidden to dissect corpses and study at least the basics of anatomy, the knowledge of doctors was so primitive that the public demanded permission from the church to dissect corpses.

What is the content of anatomy? The term "anatomy" comes from the ancient Greek word anatemnein - I dissect, dissect. This is explained by the fact that the first and main method of studying a person was the method of dismembering a corpse. At present, when the researcher uses many other methods to understand the internal and external structure of a living person, anatomy does not correspond to the content of its name. Nevertheless, even now, to describe the structure and topography of organs, the dissection of a corpse is used, which is one of the methods for studying the shape and structure. However, the structure of organs and their functions can be fully understood only by combining many research methods.

1. Using the method of anthropometry, one can measure height, the relationship of parts, establish body weight, constitution, individual structural features of a person, his race.

2. Using the preparation method, it is possible to dissect tissues in layers in order to study them and isolate muscles, blood vessels, nerves and other formations visible to the naked eye from the surrounding tissues and fiber. This method allows you to obtain data on the shape of organs, their relationships.

3. By the method of injection, they are filled with a colored mass, diluted with drying oil, kerosene, gasoline, chloroform, ether or other solvents of the body cavity, the lumen of the bronchial tree, intestines, blood and lymphatic vessels. The method was first applied in the 16th century. Hardening masses in the form of latex (liquid rubber), polymers, molten wax or metal are also used for injection. Thanks to the injection method, knowledge about the structure of the vascular system has been greatly expanded. The injection method has proven to be especially useful in cases where subsequent corrosion, clarification of organs and tissues are carried out.

4. The corrosion method was first applied by Swammerdam (XVII century), and in Russia - by IV Buyalsky. An organ with blood vessels filled with a hardened mass was immersed in warm water and kept in it for a long time. The surrounding tissues rotted and only a cast of the hardened mass remained. This process can be accelerated when tissues are destroyed by concentrated acid or alkali, which is currently used. Using the corrosion method, you can see the true shape of the cavity where the mass was poured. The disadvantage of the method is that the impression of the cavity is not interconnected with the tissues.

5. The method of enlightenment. After tissue dehydration, the preparation is saturated with liquid. In this case, the refractive index of the impregnated fabric is close to the refractive index of the liquid. Injected blood vessels or stained nerves will be visible on such relatively clear preparations. The advantage of this method over the corrosion method is that the clarified preparations preserve the spatial arrangement of blood vessels or nerves.

6. The microscopic method, which uses a relatively small increase, is now widely used in anatomy. Thanks to the use of this method, it was possible to see formations that cannot be detected on histological sections. For example, using the method of microscopic anatomy, networks of circulatory and lymphatic capillaries, intraorgan plexus of blood vessels and nerves were revealed, the structure and shape of lobules, acini, etc. were clarified.

7. Using the methods of fluoroscopy and radiography, it is possible to study the intravital form and functional features of organs in a living person. These methods are also successfully used in the study of the corpse. Very widely in clinical practice and experiment, a combination of injection of contrast agents with subsequent radiography is used. Due to such contrasting, the studied formations are more clearly distinguished on the screen or imprinted on the x-ray film.

8. The method of transillumination by reflected rays is mainly used on a living person, for example, to study the blood capillaries of the skin, mucous membranes (capillaroscopy), retinal vessels.

9. The method of endoscopic examinations allows, with the help of instruments inserted through natural and artificial holes, to examine the color, relief of organs and mucous membranes.

10. The experimental method in anatomy is used to determine the functional significance of an organ, tissue or system. It allows one to establish the plasticity of tissues, their regenerative abilities, etc. With the help of an experiment, one can obtain a lot of new data on the restructuring of organs and the body in response to external influences.

11. The mathematical method is often used in anatomical studies, since, unlike other methods, it allows you to derive more reliable quantitative indicators. With the development of electronic computing technology, mathematical methods will take a leading place in morphological research.

12. The illustration method is used to convey an accurate documentary image or in the form of creating schematized drawings of anatomical structures. Accurate anatomical data can be documented by taking photographs, followed by photo prints or black and white or color transparencies (slides) that are projected onto a screen. During preparation, many anatomical structures, especially those located in different planes, cannot be photographed. In these cases, an accurate sketch of the preparation is made. Sometimes it is necessary to create schemas. The creation of anatomical diagrams is due to the fact that neither photographs nor accurate drawings convey the internal architecture of the organ, for example, the structure of the glands, the topography of the pathways of the brain and spinal cord, etc. A schematic drawing is the most complex form of illustration preparation. This complexity is due to the fact that the schemes are created on the basis of data obtained by preparation methods, histological, histochemical, electron diffraction and experimental studies and clinical observations. By synthesizing the data of many methods, it is possible to create schematic drawings.

Filming is also widely used in anatomical studies, especially when documenting moving objects. By this method, it is possible to document the sequence of opening and dissection of the corpse, topographic and anatomical data. The method of filming can clearly show functional disorders in experimental studies: the movement of blood, lymph, excretion of urine, saliva, the function of the musculoskeletal system, etc.

13. The method of ultrasound scanning is relatively new and is not yet sufficiently used in anatomical studies. It is currently used in clinical practice to identify the topography and shape of organs in pathological conditions, the position of the fetus in the womb, the relief of the cranial cavity, the spinal canal, purulent cavities, echinococcal bladders, stones of the biliary and urinary system, and sometimes tumor nodes.

14. The holography method is used to obtain a three-dimensional image of an object using laser beams. It represents a new methodological direction in the technique of scientific research and will play a significant role in the development of morphological science.

The most important requirement of science, based on the foundations of dialectical materialism, is the study of things and phenomena in their origin and development using the historical method. V.I. Lenin directed scientists that things should be looked at from historical positions: “... To approach the issue from a scientific point of view is not to forget the main historical connection, to look at each history arose, what main stages in its development this phenomenon went through, and from the point of view of this development, look at what this thing has become now ”The historical approach uses materials from anthropology, paleontology, comparative anatomy, embryology, which allows us to study a person as a being of social social, which has undergone a complex evolution, actively adapting to nature and changing its psychophysiological characteristics under the influence of social conditions for the development of society.

Human anatomy can be methodically studied in various ways: by individual systems (systematic anatomy); describe only the external form of a person (plastic, or relief, anatomy); to study the structure of organs and systems depending on their functions (functional anatomy); to study the relative position of systems and organs, taking into account age and individual characteristics (topographic anatomy), to study the structure of organs in different age periods (age anatomy).

Systematic anatomy mainly outlines the form, structure, topography, age features, individual differences, development and anomalies, phylogenetic features for individual systems. A similar approach to the study of anatomy is most appropriate for those who are not familiar with the subject, since the complex is decomposed into its component parts.

Plastic anatomy contains information about the external forms of the body, which are determined by the development of the bone skeleton, protruding tubercles and ridges, palpable through the skin, the contours of muscle groups and muscle tone, elasticity and color of the skin, the depth of its folds, the thickness of the subcutaneous fatty tissue. The state of the internal organs is studied only to such an extent as to show how this affects the external structure. Plastic anatomy is of applied importance not only for artists and sculptors, but also for doctors, since external forms can also be used to judge the state of human health.

Functional anatomy complements the data of descriptive anatomy. It sets the task of studying the structure of organs and systems in unity with function, considering the human body in dynamics, revealing the mechanisms of restructuring the form under the influence of external factors.

Topographic anatomy studies the structure of a person in separate areas, the spatial relationship of organs and systems, taking into account individual and age characteristics. Elements of topographic anatomy necessarily accompany a systematic presentation of the material.

Age anatomy studies the structure of a person in different age periods. Under the influence of age and external factors, the structure and shape of human organs change with a certain pattern.

In children of the first years of life, adults and the elderly, there are significant differences in the anatomical structure. In clinical practice, even independent disciplines have arisen, for example, pediatrics - the science of the child, geriatrics - the science of the elderly.

Together with the descriptive human anatomy, it is necessary to study (at least in general terms) the anatomy of invertebrates and vertebrates - comparative anatomy. Based on the data of comparative anatomy, one can understand the evolution and development of living beings. Using comparative anatomical and embryological data, which are presented mainly at the stage of organogenesis, it is possible to find common signs that contribute to understanding the history of the development of man, his organs and systems.

Knowing or at least imagining how the body works is necessary not only for every physician, but for every person in general. And if even ten years ago anatomy could only be studied from textbooks or documentaries, then with the advent of virtual reality technologies, this has become not only accessible to everyone, but also extremely exciting!

One of the best online 3d anatomy services is ZygoteBody. This is a completely unique resource for studying the human body, a kind of interactive online atlas. Previously, this project was called Google Body (which indicates that the company was involved in its creation), but for some reason it was later renamed while maintaining the same URL and functionality.

ZygoteBody in 3d mode recreates the human body (male or female, you can set it in the settings) and its systems: digestive, nervous, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, etc. Initially, the virtual body is represented as follows:

On the left side of the screen there is a vertical bar with a visual display of systems in the form of icons (muscles, bones, heart, brain, etc.). Switching to any of the icons, these systems and their components are “exposed” on the body. Here, for example, is a fragment of the human cardiovascular system:

As a surgeon's scalpel is able to penetrate deeper and deeper into the human body, so you can use the slider on the left side of the screen to turn on the 3d display from the most superficial muscles to the smallest nerves and blood vessels.

Navigation through the virtual human body is carried out with the help of the mouse: it can be used to zoom in, zoom out, rotate, interact with body parts. If there is no mouse, then you can use the set of buttons in the upper left corner of the 3d atlas - for some, this option may seem even more convenient.

You can click on any part of the body with the left mouse button, while receiving a detailed description from Wikipedia, hide it for a while, or put a mark in order to return to it later.

In ZygoteBody, you can study anatomy by searching for the desired organs and body parts. To do this, there is a window where you need to enter their name (in English). The search system itself will prompt the necessary options and immediately display them on the virtual body.

The online service 3d human anatomy requires registration before starting work. You will then be asked to select the appropriate tariff plan. There are only three of them:

Lite - completely free
Premium Monthly - with a monthly fee ($4) and some additional content and tools to get the job done
Premium Yearly - billed for a year at once ($38) and the same set of features as the previous option

In most cases, I'm sure the free plan will suffice. Even if you want more, $4 a month isn't that much of a price after all when it comes to the right knowledge and a unique product.

The ZygoteBody service will be extremely useful not only for medical students and teachers of human anatomy and physiology, but also for everyone who is interested in how the human body works and wants to actually imagine how organs, muscles, bones, nerves, etc. really look like. . Virtual 3D mode is one of the best ways to do it today!