Theory and methodology of sports training. covers many aspects, including social, psychological and scientific. This knowledge and consideration of individuality. Theory and methods of training in sports Theory and methods of sports training lectures

Characteristics of the physical state.

Physical state - a set of indicators characterizing physical development, functional state and physical fitness.

Indicators of physical condition:

• 1. Parameters of the activity of the functional systems of the body
• 2. The level of physical performance (the main indicator according to the Rufier test)
• 3. Indicators of anthropometry (length, body weight, diameters, circumferences, VC, manual and deadlift dynamometry

Status levels:

• 1. High
• 2. Above average
• 3. Medium
• 4. Below average
• 5. Low

The concept of health training (OT)

Specific OT principles

• 1. Comprehensive exercise impact. Provides for the selection of exercises that contribute to the simultaneous solution of several problems
• 2. Individualization. Methods, means, form of OT are selected in accordance with individual characteristics. (corrective exercises, reflex exercises, rhythmoplastic
• 3. Availability. The content of OT depends on the level of PP and training
• 4. Systematic. Rational alternation of loads and rest of the training process.

OT funds

Aerobic exercises are exercises the performance of which is provided with energy due to oxidation processes with the participation, at an intensity of 140-15 beats / min., lasting from 15-40 minutes

Anaerobic - the implementation of which is provided with energy due to the breakdown of creatine phosphate or glycogen to the formation of lactic acid, which do not require oxygen supply at an intensity of 1705 beats / min and above, lasting from 10 seconds - 6 minutes

The effect of aerobic exercise.

• 1. Promotes the growth of energy potential (mitochondria)
• 2. Strengthens the heart muscle
• 3. Increases VC
• 4. Reduce cholesterol in the body (LDL - low density lipoprotein), increase (HDL - high density lipoproteins).
• 5. Strengthen the skeletal and muscular systems
• 6. Activate the activity of the central nervous system

OT methods

Load components in OT

1. Level - the degree of shifts in the body caused by exercise.

There are 4 types of load:

• - Excessive
• - training
• - supporting
• - insignificant
• 2. Intensity - the strength of the impact of exercises

Indicators: speed; work power; heart rate; Energy cost of exercise

In practice: In practice, heart rate for long-term exercises is calculated using the formulas:

Heart rate for beginners = 170 - age

Heart rate for those involved for 2 years = 180 -age

Competitive heart rate = 180 - S of age

Volume and intensity are inversely related.

3. Volume - duration

Indicators: exercise time, length of distance covered, weight of weights, number of exercises performed

Definition of Rational load.

• 1. Determine the UVC according to the Rufier test
• 2. Do the maximum test
• 3. Exercises are performed in 2-3 series
• 4. Determine the number of exercises in one series

For UFS in, in-with - 50% of ma[

For UFS with. - 40% of max

For UVS n. - individually

The intensity of the load is determined based on the energy cost of the exercises

MET - the value of energy costs kcal / min.

The structure of the OT training session consists of:

• 1. Preparatory
• 2. Basic - up to 40 minutes (carrying out complex work)
• 3. Final - restoration of the body to the original pulse

Self-control in the process of self-study

Self-control - systematic independent observations of those involved in the state of their health, physical development, physical fitness and their dynamics.

Subjective - well-being, sleep, desire to exercise, appetite physical aerobic training

Objective - heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate.

Ways of self-control:

• 1. Heart rate for 15 seconds in the morning and evening in the supine position
• 2. Indicators of the state of the body in the morning for 15 seconds (lying down)
• 3. Speaking test - aerobic test…talk while moving*

Indicators of the state of the body:

Men heart rate - less than 50 (excellent); 50-65 - good; 66-75 - satisfactory; more than 76 - weak.

Women - less than 55 excellent; 55-70 is good; 71-80 satisfactory; more than 81 - weak.

Requirements for self-control

Observation must be carried out daily.

It is desirable to carry out sampling and testing at the same time: in the morning 1.5 - 2 hours before or after a meal, 4-6 hours after class.

OT performance criteria

Functional state assessment:

• 1. Cardiovascular system
• 2. Respiratory system
• 3. Vestibular apparatus
• 4. Musculoskeletal system
• 5. Posture assessment
• 6. Assessment of body weight.

The concept of a functional test

This is a dosed load that allows you to assess the functional state of the body.

Assessment of the functional state of the cardiovascular system. Rufier's test \u003d 4 (P 1 + P 1 + P 3) - 200/10

Rating: Less than 34 s - satisfactory Over 40 s - excellent.

Assessment of the functional state of the vestibular apparatus using the Romberg test.

Assessment of the state of the musculoskeletal system. Technique: lean forward with hands touching the floor (legs straight)

Body weight assessment

Aimed at the development of endurance, expressed in the development of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the mitochondrial apparatus and, as a result, the improvement of the mechanism of ATP resynthesis due to oxidation, will significantly reduce the period of recovery and synthesis of protein structures after high-intensity resistance training. After all, it is oxidation that plays a leading role in providing energy for the energy-intensive synthetic processes initiated by these trainings.

The development of the above factors that determine the size of the muscle will be the result of various adaptive processes, which, in turn, will be initiated by training influences that are different in nature of the load. By devoting mesocycles to the predominant solution of certain tasks and sequentially alternating them, it is possible to ensure a fairly long and continuous progress in achieving the set maximum task.

Currently, in the practice of fitness training, periodizing the training
program is mainly used two methods.

First technique involves a consistent change of training programs that have a complete form and clear boundaries for the beginning and end of classes for these programs. Each such program, which has a constant load value corresponding to the current functional state of the client, differs from others mainly in volume and intensity. The duration of each such mesocycle, during which your client is engaged in one program and, accordingly, affects the systems of his body corresponding to this program, as a rule, is from two to four months. At the end of each mesocycle, there is a one-week break during which the client does only low-volume, low-intensity aerobic exercise. The task of such periods is the physical and mental recovery of the body, the "self-healing" of microtraumas of muscle and connective tissue.

The dynamics of load changes within one mesocycle can look quite diverse. The most common option is a linear increase in load, which occurs mainly due to an increase in the weight of the burden. The athlete tries to put into practice the principle of overload, trying to increase the weight of weights at each workout. At the same time, as Stuart Mac Robert rightly notes in his book “Think”, it is not so much the speed of weight increase as the very presence of this progression that is important. Therefore, it seems reasonable, when approaching one’s genetically predetermined limit in the development of strength abilities, to use disks of as little weight as possible to additionally burden the barbell or dumbbells (the so-called. weights). The volume of load with this method of organizing training within one mesocycle, as a rule, does not change.

The schemes are more effective, in which, within one mesocycle, the dynamics of load changes has a wave-like form, increasing at the beginning and middle of the cycle, reaching a peak level in the second half and decreasing towards the end of the cycle. In this case, we avoid the states of stressful situations of a sharp reduction or increase in loads. The form of such a wave-like change in loads can be both smooth, with their gradual decrease or decrease, and stepwise, in which there is a change of microcycles with a load of different magnitudes. In the second case, microcycles can be from one to three weeks long and wear retractor, basic, percussive or restorative character. It should be noted that during the shock microcycle, both an increase in the level of the leading function (against the background of accumulating overwork of the body as a whole) and its decrease as a result of training sessions in a state of under-recovery can be observed. Such a state is acceptable for a limited period of time, however, after the shock microcycle, a recovery microcycle must necessarily follow, a reduced level of stress during which will allow you to get rid of these negative factors.

Greetings, dear readers! Often, visitors to gyms think that it is enough just to lift weights by themselves. If everything were so, and not otherwise, then a professional athlete would not need a whole team of coaches, methodologists and scientists.

The theoretical foundations of sports training originated more than 2000 years ago, when sports events called the Olympic Games began to be held in Greece. By this time, treatises of ancient Greek scientists belong, in which the methods of sports training of athletes were already discussed.

Training is not as simple a process as it might seem at first glance. After all, it is not only a set of exercises and a specific program for their implementation. The basis of a fruitful training also includes theoretical and psychological preparation, the principle of individualization of the load and the adjustment of the training process to specific goals.

Even if you make yourself a good exercise program, you will come across the concept of sports training methods. They essentially determine the manner in which you conduct your workout.

Modern methods, in contrast to ancient Greek, have acquired a more formalized form. With their classification, I will now acquaint you.

General pedagogical methods

verbal methods

The athlete's coach must first explain to the athlete the purpose and objectives of the training. Discuss points related to the technique of performing exercises, the style of performing movements and analyze the results already achieved. If necessary, motivate the athlete for the upcoming training.

Such relationships should be present not only in professional sports, but also in ordinary fitness centers, between a personal trainer and his client.

Visual Methods

Here the expression is true: "it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times." For example, it will be difficult for a beginner in the gym to explain the technique of performing the exercise. In this case, the coach should clearly demonstrate the correct biomechanics of movement.

And every time in my articles I urge you to use visual methods when I ask you to watch a video with the correct technique for performing an exercise.

Practical Methods

Strictly Regulated Exercise Method

This includes the development of exercise techniques and methods for developing physical qualities.

Mastering the exercise technique

Mastering the technique can be carried out by splitting a complex movement into simple components and sequentially working through each part separately. But such methods are rarely used in fitness and bodybuilding.

Iron sports are characterized by working out the technique of the entire exercise in one fell swoop or replacing the basic movement with a similar one in the simulator. The last method is called simulation. For example, to better understand the movement of the bar in the squat, you can first perform the exercise in the Smith machine.

Methods for the development of physical qualities

Methods for the development of physical qualities, in turn, can be divided into the following.

Continuous uniform method

An example is cardio. That is, continuous work for a certain time, aimed mainly at developing aerobic qualities and endurance for a particular sport. Moreover, it is important that the exercise is performed in a constant rhythm (slow, medium or fast). The disadvantage of this method is the rapid adaptation of the body to stress.

Continuous variable method

Here, the load can vary during the exercise, which will make the training more interesting and varied. The body will not be able to quickly adapt to the load, as you can surprise it with every workout.

interval method

It consists in alternating intervals of intensive work and rest. And rest is strictly stipulated. An example would be interval cardio, which, as you know, is an efficient calorie burner, but at the same time, it is recommended only for trained athletes. Rest can last from 15 seconds to 3 minutes, depending on the duration of the intense part of the exercise.

Repeat method

The main method used by bodybuilders. After completing a certain number of repetitions, a rest period follows. Rest time is not strictly regulated, but even if it is defined, then this time is enough to replenish energy resources. In other sports, this method is used to simulate competitive loads.

Circuit training method

Introducing this method into your training schedule will increase calorie consumption and diversify the training process. strict intervals of work and rest, individualization of the load, consistent use of various muscle groups.

game method

Gives the opportunity to develop sports skills during the game. This method is popular in almost all sports and is actively used in preparation for competitions. Even in bodybuilding, you can apply this method, but only as a change and not more than once a month.

If you have not guessed how you can apply this method in the hall, then I suggest. Find a training partner, choose an exercise, and have a ladder challenge. Choose a certain weight of the projectile and perform the exercise in turn, each time increasing the number of repetitions. The one who first fails to complete the required number of repetitions will lose.

Competitive Method

When preparing for competitions, you need to give the body a load close to the competitive one. This causes serious shifts in various body systems and stimulates its adaptive resources. It can also serve as a control method for the level of training of an athlete. Competition rules in training can be modified to emphasize specific skills.

What conclusion can be drawn, friends? Training is a complex and multifaceted process, during which the athlete, but also the psychological qualities. The variety of methods is proof of this.

And I say goodbye to you on this. Learn theory and put it into practice. Don't forget to share the articles with your friends. See you soon!

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Covers many aspects, including social, psychological and scientific. This knowledge and consideration of the athlete's individuality allow the coach to develop the most effective training programs. Sports training is not a stereotyped repetition, but a creative process that unites the coach and the athlete. Scope of knowledge covered by training theory:

Philosophical laws. Of course, the correctness of the process of sports training is determined by the observance of the basic universal laws. There are three basic laws of dialectics: 1. unity and struggle of opposites; 2. the transition of quantity into quality; 3. denial of denial. The law of the unity and struggle of opposites lies in the fact that everything that exists consists of opposite principles, which, being united in nature, are in conflict and contradict each other (example: day and night, hot and cold, black and white, winter and summer , youth and old age, in relation to the theory of sports training - fatigue during the session (deterioration of quality, inhibition of the trained function), subsequently causes, in the recovery phase, an improvement in physical quality.

The second law of dialectics is the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones. Quality is identical to being, certainty, a stable system of certain characteristics and connections of an object. Quantity is the calculated parameters of an object or phenomenon (number, size, volume, weight, size, etc.). Measure the unity of quantity and quality. With certain quantitative changes, the quality necessarily changes. At the same time, the quality cannot change indefinitely. There comes a moment when a change in quality leads to a change in the measure (that is, in the coordinate system in which the change in quality used to take place under the influence of quantitative changes) to a radical transformation of the essence of the object. Such moments are called "nodes", and the transition to another state is understood in philosophy as a "jump". The transition of quantity into a fundamentally new quality can occur: abruptly, at once; imperceptibly, evolutionarily.

The law of negation of negation is that the new always negates the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns from the new into the old and is negated by more and more new. Examples: "relay race of generations"; the evolution of the genus (children are partially parents, but already at a new stage); the daily death of old blood cells, the emergence of new ones. The denial of old forms by new ones is the cause and mechanism of progressive development. However, the question of the direction of development is debatable in philosophy. The following main points of view are distinguished: development is only a progressive process, the transition from lower to higher forms, that is, upward development; development can be both ascending and descending; development is chaotic, has no direction. Practice shows that of the three points of view, the second one is closest to the true one: development can be both upward and downward, although the general trend is still upward. Examples: the human body develops, grows stronger (ascending development), but then, developing further, it already weakens, becomes decrepit (descending development);

Development rather goes not in a linear way (in a straight line), but in a spiral, and each turn of the spiral repeats the previous ones, but at a new, higher level. The main principles of dialectics are: the principle of universal connection; the principle of consistency; the principle of causality; the principle of historicism.

Universal connection means the integrity of the surrounding world, its internal unity, interconnectedness, interdependence of all its components of objects, phenomena, processes. Communications can be: external and internal; direct and indirect; genetic and functional; spatial and temporal; random and regular. The most common type of communication is external and internal. Example: internal connections of the human body as a biological system, external connections of a person as elements of a social system.

Consistency means that numerous connections in the world around us do not exist chaotically, but in an orderly manner. These links form an integral system in which they are arranged in a hierarchical order. Thanks to this, the surrounding world has an internal expediency. Causality is the presence of such connections, where one gives rise to another. Objects, phenomena, processes of the surrounding world are conditioned by something, that is, they have either an external or internal cause. The cause, in turn, gives rise to the effect, and the connections as a whole are called cause-and-effect. Historicism implies two aspects of the surrounding world: eternity, the indestructibility of history, the world; its existence and development in time, which lasts forever.

In modern sports practice, there is a contradiction of specialists about the primacy of genetics and methodology. There are those who still consider methodology to be a more important component of the education of elite athletes. In reality, in this case (education of elite class athletes), both methodology and genetics are important. Heredity is the basis of talent, which is revealed through the right technique. At a young age, hereditary talent determines success, and with the help of a technique, champions are raised from talented people. With unique genetics and poor methodology, the likelihood of climbing to the international level in a particular sport is problematic, but at the same time without the appropriate heredity (largely determining anthropometric and functional data: height, weight, maximum oxygen consumption, etc.) about an athlete there is no need to speak of the highest class, even with the most modern methods.

Training The process of systematic impact on the athlete's body of specially selected physical exercises in order to increase sports performance and achieve high sports results. Properly chosen technique and rational regimen of T. promote health, formation and improvement of motor skills, development of certain physical and mental qualities, and expansion of the body's functional capabilities.

The Law of Overload and Supercompensation (Adaptive Responses of the Organism to Load) The main components of T. are the physical, technical, tactical, moral and volitional training of an athlete, for which various means and methods are used. Their choice and combination, as well as the nature, volume and intensity of physical activity used, the possibility of participating in competitions depend on the age, gender, health status and level of preparedness of the trainee, the tasks and conditions of each stage of training. Properly trained people feel good health, high efficiency, desire to train, good load tolerance.

In the course of T., the state of fitness gradually develops, reflecting the level of preparedness of the athlete. Fitness is characterized by morphological and functional restructuring of the body, improvement of regulatory mechanisms, expansion of functionality, optimization of response to physical activity, acceleration of recovery processes. The increase in fitness is revealed in the process of special observations of trainers, as well as during a comprehensive medical examination in conditions of muscle rest, during physical exertion, during the recovery period. The principle of progressively increasing overload is the optimal improvement of sports training.

If the conditions and regimen of T., as well as the applied loads, do not correspond to the age and state of health of the trainees, when athletes participate in T. and competitions during illness or after a violation of the regimen, overwork, overtraining, and overstrain may occur. At the same time, the state of health worsens, adaptation to loads decreases, general and sports performance, sometimes various pre-pathological and pathological conditions develop. Different training loads have different effects on the recovery processes of the athlete's body.

The unity of the pedagogical and biological aspects of sports training Sports training is a pedagogical process that affects the personality of an athlete, his mental and physical state. The starting points in the activity of a coach are the general principles of pedagogy, the principles of the theory and methods of physical education, as well as the special principles of the theory of sports training. Relying on the fundamental provisions of general and sports pedagogy allows us to streamline the pedagogical content and educational orientation of sports training, to bring its motivational, socio-psychological and psychological support into a system, to orient the activities of the coach towards cooperation with the athlete as a developing creative person.

At the same time, sports training in its specific manifestation has a pronounced biological basis. Sportsmanship is formed on the basis of long-term morphological and functional adaptation of his body to training and competitive influences. Predominantly the biological aspect of training is revealed in such concepts as "working capacity", "bioenergy capabilities of the body", "physical load", "adaptation to physical loads". Psychological-pedagogical and biological aspects of training are in an organic relationship. This obliges the coach to deeply understand the biological mechanisms and patterns of the formation of sportsmanship, to comprehend them in the light of pedagogical tasks and the social essence of sports activity. Eric Tuuguud in 2010 was recognized as the best coach in Norway. Tooguud has no coaching education other than self-education, experience and courses for coaches. Eric is a molecular biologist by training, works for Norwegian Petroleum, and as a hobby trainer.

The concept of physical activity and its training effect Physical activity is a qualitative and quantitative measure of training and competitive exercises that cause pronounced functional changes in the athlete's body and stimulate adaptive processes. There are "external" (indicators of volume, intensity of exercises, etc.) and "internal" (reaction of the organism to the performed exercises) sides of the load. The same load, set according to external parameters, causes a different reaction of the body depending on the state of the athlete and the construction of the training. The connection between the given load and the state of the athlete is the central issue of managing the training process. Ultimately, the effect of training does not depend on what exercises and to what extent the athlete performed, but on what changes in the body these exercises caused. It is customary to distinguish three types of training effect: urgent, delayed, cumulative. The urgent training effect is the current reaction of the body to the exercise being performed (for example, a training series of 10x100 m) or the state of the body in the first minutes of recovery after the end of the load;

Delayed training effect - the state of the body observed after several training sessions; Cumulative (accumulative) training effect - the state of the body, observed after a relatively complete cycle of training sessions, subject to the solution of a specific training problem.

The immediate training effect depends on the following five components of the performed exercise: 1) the duration of the work, 2) its intensity, 3) the number of repetitions, 4) the duration of the rest pauses between repetitions, 5) the nature of the rest. The delayed and cumulative training effects are greatly influenced by the organization of loads - their order within the framework of one and several sessions, the ratio of periods of training work and recovery after work.

Loads can be systematized for various reasons. For example, according to the depth of impact on various functions of the body, training loads are divided into: 1) compensatory (contribute to recovery and a more favorable and directed course of the adaptation process); 2) supporting (fix, maintain the achieved level of adaptive changes in the body); 3) developing (stimulate adaptation processes according to the new level of requirements); 4) debilitating (significantly exceed the adaptation threshold and can lead to overstrain of the trained function and overtraining).

The generally accepted volume of training in Norwegian ski training by age categories: summer - 250 hours summer - 300 hours 16 years - 380 hours summer depending on the actual biological age - hours 19 years old - 530 hours 20 years old - 580 hours 22 years old - 650 hours 25 years old – 750 hours Elite athletes around 1000 hours. The volumes take into account the direct load, without the time of warm-ups and hitches. (Data from Norway's cross-country skiing head coach Roste, from coaching workshop 2006).

Adaptation to physical loads According to modern concepts, the basis of the development of the special performance of an athlete is the biological mechanism of long-term individual adaptation of the body's specific adaptation to physical loads in conditions of sports activity. Adaptation is the reaction of the whole organism, aimed at: 1) providing intensive muscular activity of the athlete; 2) maintaining or restoring the constancy of the internal environment of the body (homeostasis) and increasing its protective properties.

The 80/20 Intensity Principle Why is the 80/20 principle predetermined for the development of extraordinary physical performance? Now one of the hot topics in research is the expression of genes, under certain loads. Spanish experts suggested that in the course of evolution, a person mainly obtained food for himself by gathering pasture: berries, mushrooms, etc. (80%), that is, being in a zone of moderate intensity for a long time and hunting (20%) while staying in a zone of high intensity. Thus, mother nature has put her code into genes that are optimally expressed in just such a combination. (reaching the genetically predetermined level of development of physical qualities).

Zones of intensity. Classification of the severity of physical activity by intensity zones. There are a number of ways to classify physical activity into so-called intensity zones. In some cases, the boundaries of the zones are set without much reason, but it is more advisable to do this based on physiological measurements. If we classify the severity of cyclic load based solely on physiological parameters, then we can distinguish three main zones and a supermaximal

The second zone, mixed, is above the aerobic threshold (first ventilatory threshold) but below the anaerobic threshold (second ventilatory threshold). Energy supply at this intensity is provided both through the oxidation of fatty acids and with a progressive increase in the oxidation of carbohydrates. In the intensity range of the second zone, the lactate concentration reaches the level of 2-4 mmol/l. The third zone lies between the level of the anaerobic threshold and the value of the maximum oxygen consumption of the MPC. The third zone is a zone of high-intensity physical activity, where the main source of energy is carbohydrates obtained through the breakdown of glycogen. Competitive activity in its intensity is close to the third zone. In highly qualified professional athletes, about 20% of the volume of the entire training load occurs in the third zone. Supermaximal load lies beyond the value of the IPC where the anaerobic mechanism of energy supply prevails. This intensity is close to the maximum possible, and can be maintained by the athlete for a relatively short time. The first zone is the aerobic zone, which is at or below the aerobic threshold. The upper limit of this zone is the first lactate threshold (LT1), which corresponds to a lactate concentration of 2 mmol/l. As a rule, it is in this range of intensity that the lion's share of the load is carried out by highly qualified athletes in endurance sports. Energy, when exercised in this zone, is extracted mainly through the oxidation of fatty acids. Athletes working in this zone develop the body's ability to effectively use fatty acids as an energy source, which increases their performance.

Zone number 4 and 5 lie above the anaerobic threshold and have narrow ranges. These zones are called the zone of medium and high severity. Everything that is above the intensity level of the IPC- is in the supermaximal anaerobic zone. Accelerations of short duration are made with this intensity, and a long stay in this zone leads to fatigue or, in the worst case, overwork. The classification of the severity of physical activity is necessary for a more accurate analysis of the athlete's training. With the growing popularity of different sports and their formation as professional disciplines, the need for analysis and a rigorous approach implies the presence of a systematized preparation, which the above tables help. The figure shows that the zone at and below the aerobic threshold is subdivided into two subzones 1 and 2, respectively. Zone number one is called the recovery zone and zone number two is the moderate zone. As a rule, long training sessions are held in the temperate zone. Mixed zone, zone 3 in terms of intensity refers to mild severity.

Specific and non-specific components of adaptation. The impact of physical activity on the athlete's body is transmitted through receptors to the central nervous system, which controls adaptive processes. If the force of influences is small or if a stable adaptation to this type of load has already been developed, the body responds with the usual specific homeostatic reactions that do not require the strain of adaptation mechanisms and significant energy costs using reserve capabilities.

As the magnitude of the load increases in the body, there may be a shortage of energy substrates and plastic material, and the constancy of the internal environment may be disturbed. Then the mechanism of general adaptation is activated. With the help of non-specific homeostatic reactions (standard, independent of the nature of the load), the problem is solved to restore the homeostasis of the body, mobilize and redistribute its resources in such a way as to, on the one hand, ensure the high efficiency of the current specific motor activity and, on the other hand, create a structural basis for a stable long-term adaptation to this type of physical activity.

Urgent adaptation is the initial stage of adaptation to a new and rather intense physical activity. It is expressed in adaptive changes that develop directly during the impact of the load on the basis of previously formed motor stereotypes and existing functional capabilities.

Urgent adaptation There is a mobilization of a specific functional system responsible for the implementation of a particular type of motor activity, the maximum (for a given state of preparedness) level is reached by the strength and speed of contraction of the muscles involved in the work, the activity of the respiratory and circulatory systems, etc. The functioning of the systems proceeds at the limit of their physiological possibilities. Under these conditions, the body's motor response is either not powerful enough, or shorter, or not quite accurate in terms of coordination and rhythm of movements.

With regularly repeated intense and prolonged loads, a specific functional system is not able to fully satisfy the needs of the body, maintain its homeostasis. The body is in a state of tension (stress) and includes a self-defense mechanism - a non-specific stress reaction. Through the centers of neurohumoral regulation, the activity of the sympathetic-adrenal and pituitary-adrenocortical hormonal systems is enhanced. These systems are activated only when the force of influences on the organism exceeds the threshold level. As a result, a large amount of adrenaline, norepinephrine, corticoids and other hormones are released into the blood. Together with metabolites formed during the destruction of energy substrates and contractile proteins, they (through appropriate adaptive mechanisms) ensure the mobilization of energy and plastic resources of the whole organism and their selective redistribution to organs and tissues that carry the greatest functional load. This allows you to best ensure regular muscle work.

All urgent adaptation reactions are coordinated within the framework of the dominant functional system (dominant) that is already existing or newly formed in the body, responsible for adaptation to a given type of muscle activity. The dominant system includes: 1) afferent link receptors, 2) the central link in the structure of neurohumoral regulation at different levels of the CNS; 3) the executive link of the locomotor apparatus, 4) the link of vegetative support. The presence of a dominant functional system is the basis for the deployment of short-term adaptation, unstable and insufficiently effective. However, for the transition of adaptation to a sustainable and long-term formation of such a system is still not enough. It is necessary that pronounced structural changes take place in the cells and organs that make up the dominant system, increasing its power and at the same time economy and reliability.

The transition from urgent to long-term adaptation is associated with the formation of the so-called systemic structural trace. Due to the fact that there is a close relationship between the function of a cell and its genetic apparatus, the prolonged intensive functioning of certain cellular structures activates the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins in these structures. There is an increase in the mass of cellular structures in the form of hypertrophy of organs and entire functional systems. As a result, the power of those parts of the body that limit adaptation to a specific muscular activity increases.

So, for example, adaptation to intense physical endurance loads is characterized by the following structural changes: At the level of central regulation, reorganization of interneuronal synaptic connections, direct hypertrophy of motor neurons that ensure stable and effective implementation of specialized motor skills. At the level of hormonal regulation, hypertrophy of the cortical and medulla of the adrenal glands. At the level of the motor apparatus, moderate hypertrophy of skeletal muscles, an increase in the number and mass of mitochondria in them, the content and activity of oxidative enzymes and energy substrates, and the number of capillaries. At the level of the heart, moderate myocardial hypertrophy, an increase in coronary capillaries and coronary bed capacity, etc. Such structural adjustments increase the capacity of the functional system and, consequently, contribute to its transfer to a less stressful and more economical mode of operation. The body restores disturbed homeostasis and enters a state of sustainable adaptation to a given physical activity. And as noted above, the formation of a structural trace occurs against the background of a pronounced nonspecific stress syndrome, which plays an important role precisely at the initial and transitional stages of adaptation. After a stable adaptation has been formed and the disturbance of homeostasis has been eliminated, the nonspecific stress reaction, having played its role, gradually fades away.

Sustainable long-term adaptation is characterized by a high level of special performance of the organism. The athlete gets the opportunity to effectively solve the specific tasks of technical-tactical, integral and other types of special training, rising to higher levels of sportsmanship.

The development and maintenance of long-term adaptation is associated with the systematic application of loads that place increased demands on adaptable systems. With a stable physical load, this process slows down. The body begins to respond to the usual load with a familiar reaction; the developing influence of loads disappears. The use of physical exercises that are not able to maintain the achieved level of adaptive changes, or the cessation of regular training, leads to maladjustment.

In the process of disadaptation, the level of functional capacity of organs and systems decreases, and the systemic structural trace, which formed the basis of sustainable adaptation, gradually disappears. The rate of the deadadaptation process is significantly lower compared to the rate of adaptation formation. For example, hypertrophy of muscle tissue, which is a consequence of strength training, disappears 23 times slower than it appears. It is also known that the faster an adaptation is formed, the more difficult it is to maintain its level and the faster it loses it after the training stops.

Sports practice shows that maintaining the functional and structural foundations of adaptation through the use of optimal physical activity is an immeasurably more effective option than repeated repetition of adaptation-disadaptation-adaptation cycles. Frequent alternation of processes of adaptation and disadaptation leads to excessive exploitation of the body, depletion of systems responsible for adaptation.

There is another feature of the adaptation process, which is extremely important for understanding the patterns of sports training. The athlete's body cannot continuously respond to deep training impacts with positive adaptive changes. There is a limit to the body's adaptive reserve. The analysis says the following. At low loads, adaptive changes in the body do not affect cellular structures, the increase in functionality is small. In the zone of optimal loads, the increase in special performance increases significantly and is directly proportional to the amount of special work performed. However, exceeding the limit of the body's adaptive capabilities can lead not only to a slowdown in the growth rate of working capacity, but also to a breakdown in adaptation to the exhaustion of systems that carry the main load during muscular work.

In this regard, the role of scientifically based calculation of optimal in terms of magnitude and duration of use of training loads of a specific direction, planned for a certain period of training, is understandable. The question of the permissible duration ("portions", "doses") of continuous training effects on the athlete's body, which he is able to withstand without the threat of adaptation failure, is of paramount importance. With regard to the preparation of well-trained athletes, when using a moderate load, the duration of the period of continuous training effects can be 5-6 weeks, when using a concentrated load intensity of a specific direction, no more than 3-4 weeks; after which a rehabilitation pause is necessary to activate the recovery processes.

The body of a highly qualified athlete is able to perceive three such successive cycles of training sessions with intense loads, separated by short (7-10 days) rehabilitation pauses. Then a longer period of compensatory-supportive training is needed, associated with stabilization at a new level of functional rearrangements of the body. As a rule, the terms objectively necessary for the full completion of adaptive changes (when using intense training loads) and the acquisition of a stable state of sports form are within weeks

The probability of the onset of the stage of exhaustion increases in cases where intense physical activity is combined with intense stressful situations, competitive or domestic. Irregular (with long breaks) training can also contribute to the disruption of adaptation, when the systemic structural trace and especially its components in the motor executive organs can be lost in the process of deadaptation. Under these conditions, the ability of the genetic apparatus to activate the synthesis of more and more new nucleic acids and specific proteins can be exhausted. As a result, the renewal of protein structures is disrupted in the dominant system, and there is a transition from hyperfunction to functional exhaustion. In such circumstances, the priority in training is the load with the lowest structural cost. These include exercises in which adaptation develops primarily due to the use of the aerobic reserve of the cellular structures of the working organs and systems, and secondly due to an increase in the mass of these structures.

Let's summarize what has been said about adaptation. At the initial stage of adaptation, in response to the regular impact of a specific physical activity, a single functional formation (dominant) is formed in the body, which is the basis for the deployment of specific adaptive rearrangements. The specificity of rearrangements is manifested in a predominant or exceptional increase in the level of leading energy systems, leading motor qualities and abilities, in improving the coordination of specialized movements, changing the biochemical status of skeletal muscles that carry the main load. The transition from short-term unstable to long-term stable individual adaptation is associated with the formation of a systemic structural trace. The latter constitutes the material basis of specific long-term adaptation. The formation of a specific structural trace and the deployment of a nonspecific stress reaction (general adaptation syndrome) are inextricably linked.